The stress of a practical test is something that can leave any pilot concerned about their performance abilities, even those that have taken many practical tests already. The FAA’s “IM SAFE” checklist highlights stress as a key component to being a safe pilot, and being a safe pilot is part of practical test day. (To read more about the IM SAFE checklist and aeronautical decision making, check out Chapter 17 in the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.) A few tips can help any pilot mentally prepare for a practical test.

Get organized
Getting yourself organized prior to the test will help reduce mental stress. Make sure your applications are complete, you have finished all the required flight times, your charts and study materials are available, and your aircraft is reserved for the day of your test. There are certainly other things that you can include in your organization efforts, but whatever they are do them ahead of time. Waiting until the last minute means a greater chance of forgetting things. Think your way through what you will need to make the test day go smoothly and get your stuff together. A little organization, even a list or two, can keep you focused.

Talk with your instructor and other pilots
Unless this happens to be the very first test your particular examiner is giving, your instructor or other pilots will probably be familiar with the examiner’s previous testing activities. There may even be some “gouges” available on the examiner. While examiners do change the content of their tests so they aren’t the same every time, there is only so much latitude an examiner has within the practical test requirements for what they will test. Talk with others to get an idea what the examiner is like to reduce some of the mystery of the practical test.

Talk with the examiner
Most examiners don’t mind talking with an applicant prior to the test when time allows. Getting a briefing from the examiner about the structure of the testing process, what will be expected of the applicant, and if the examiner has any information they would like the student to be aware of or consider for test day will allow for some pre-planning and a better understanding of the testing process. This can allow any applicant to better prepare mentally for how long the test will take, what will be tested, and how the examiner will conduct the test.

Rest
Mentally preparing for a test requires that the pilot be rested. Showing up to a test after only three hours of sleep or after working an all night midnight shift is not going to result in a mentally prepared, or at least a mentally sharp, test applicant. I know this sounds like a simple consideration, but many applicants still show up every year mentally fried, just wanting to get the test done after not getting enough sleep.

Avoid taking the test with other life distractions
If you just got fired from your job, you’re getting a divorce, or your truck broke down it probably isn’t the best day to take a practical test. If all of these happened, you are probably in a country song. But seriously, if you have a major life stress event happening, seriously consider rescheduling. A practical test does require your full attention to perform to your best ability, so don’t try to do this when other life circumstances may cause you to be distracted. An examiner is a person too, and if you call them to reschedule because of a major life event they will understand and not hold it against you. It shows good pilot decision-making to the examiner when you are aware of how these events could affect your performance and choose to not fly when your abilities may be less than optimum.

I tell most of my students and practical test applicants that “nervous” is OK but “scared” is bad. A little self-evaluation can help you figure out if you are “nervous” or “scared” of the test. If you are still scared, it is probably an indicator that you don’t feel prepared. Nervous is normal, and if you really feel mentally prepared for the test you shouldn’t be scared. Be honest with yourself. If you aren’t mentally prepared for the test, wait to schedule it until you are really ready.

Jason Blair is an active single and multi-engine instructor and FAA Designated Pilot Examiner with 4,800 hours total time and 2,700 hours instruction given. He has served on several FAA/Industry aviation committees and has and continues to work with aviation associations on flight training issues. He also consults on aviation training and regulatory efforts for the general aviation industry.

The post How to Prepare Mentally for Your Practical Test first appeared on Learn To Fly.

• Special notices in regard to airports listed
• FSS and National Weather Service telephone numbers
• Frequencies of Air Route Traffic Control Centers
• FAA General Aviation District Office telephone numbers
• VOR receiver check points
• Parachute jumping areas
• Aeronautical Chart Bulletin (contains information about obstacles and hazards that have been noted since the last chart was printed and which will be included in the next printing)
• Location of Enroute Flight Advisory Stations (Flight Watch)
• Airport diagrams for all public airports; detailed airport diagrams for large airports; airport diagrams are also available at www.aeronav.faa.gov
• VFR GPS waypoints

The Airport/Facility Directory is published in seven volumes depending on geographic location and is revised every 56 days.

An online version is available by going to www.aeronav.faa.gov and clicking on “Free Digital Products” in the left column. The resulting page offers a number of valuable AeroNav products in addition to the A/FD. The A/FD and its online counterpart are the only official sources of airport information; do not rely on commercial publications.

Appendix C reprints the A/FD Legend. Read it thoroughly. An amazing number of “Where does it say…?” or “where can I find out?” questions can be answered by reading the Legend. This is especially true of communications questions. The ability to interpret the airport listings is only part of what you need to know.

Much of the information contained in the A/FD (but not the Aeronautical Chart Bulletin) can be found at www.airnav.com, www.landings.com, www.runwayfinder.com or www.1800wxbrief.com.

The post Procedures and Airport Operations: The Airport/Facility Directory first appeared on Learn To Fly.

Some of the more beneficial items to note with February’s Test Roll are outlined below.

1. The FAA is intending to implement the Airman Certification Standards (ACS) for both Private and Instrument Airplane on June 15th of this year. Corresponding to this will be the cancellation of both Private and Instrument Airplane Practical Test Standards (PTS) documents.

This is exciting news for the training industry and a long time coming. Once we get a little closer to the release date I will provide an update about all the outstanding and beneficial elements the new ACS documents will provide.

If you’re getting ready for an FAA Knowledge Test, then listen up!

2. Questions in the following topic areas have been removed from ALL knowledge exams. In other words, if you plan on taking the FAA Private Pilot Knowledge exam in the next few weeks you will not see questions relating to these specific topic areas:

• Tricolor VASI
  You are unlikely to ever encounter one at an airport.
• Flight Plans
  The FAA plans to develop new questions relating to ICAO flight plans and have on the test by October. If you were not already aware, the FAA is changing over to the ICAO flight plan format. I did a blog post on this topic back in October and you may view it here.
• Student Pilot / Medical Certificate
  As you may have heard, the FAA has recently changed the rules and regulations to the Student Pilot Certificate. These changes have been outlined in a recent LTFB blog post found here. Updated questions relating to this topic will be back on the knowledge exams by April when the changes go into effect. 

4. Additional changes that only affect the Instrument Rating Airplane (IRA) knowledge exam are outlined below. Questions relating to these topics will be removed:

• Radar approaches, to include ASR and PAR
• Composite flight plans
• Designation of instruments as “Primary” or “Secondary” for aircraft control
• Inner marker
• Middle marker
• Specific number of degrees on glidepath
• Time and distance questions involving multiple interpolation

We have been hard at work this week preparing documents listing all the changes to our knowledge test question databases and they are now available by following the link below. Make sure to check them out and update your Test Prep Books accordingly. Updates for Prepware Software and Apps will be available shortly.

Updates to ASA Knowledge Exam Question Databases

The post CFI Brief: Airman Testing, February Test Roll first appeared on Learn To Fly.

Request assistance whenever you have any serious doubt regarding the safety of a flight. Transmission should be slow and distinct, with each word pronounced clearly so that there is no need for repetition. This of course should apply to all radio transmissions, but it is more important in emergency situations. If you do find yourself in real difficulty, waste no time in requesting assistance from ATC or on the appropriate CTAF or UNICOM frequency. Timely action may avoid an even more serious emergency.

What is Considered to be an Emergency?
It is impossible to cover all the possibilities here. The declaration of an emergency by the pilot in command is an area for your operational judgment. Emergencies can be classified according to the urgency and to the degree of seriousness of the consequences.

As the pilot, you decide, but always err on the safe side. Some categories might be:

• no urgency of time but need assistance, such as being uncertain of position and unable to confirm direction to proceed but with plenty of fuel and remaining daylight;
• some urgency of time, such as uncertain of position with fuel reserves or remaining daylight less than an hour or so;
• some urgency and potential for serious consequences, such as loss of oil pressure, rough-running engine or fuel depletion that may leave insufficient fuel to reach an airfield;
• potential seriousness but not yet developed, such as some doubt about the serviceability of the aircraft or systems, or the medical condition of the pilot;
• potential seriousness but no urgency, such as loss of primary attitude indicator with eight oktas of cloud but plenty of fuel and daylight; and
• potential catastrophe and urgency, such as risk of loss of control due to reduced visibility or daylight or risk of controlled flight into terrain due to rising ground and lowering cloud base.

It is impossible to set hard-and-fast rules. If in doubt, tell someone what the potential problem is and do it earlier rather than later, when there is still plenty of time, fuel and daylight. If there is any urgency, formally declare an emergency, at least a pan-pan. If there is any risk of loss of control or injury, declare a mayday.

Declaring an Emergency
If an emergency arises, it is your responsibility as pilot in command to assess just how serious the emergency is (or could be) and to take appropriate safety action. Many emergencies require your immediate attention and occupy you fully for some moments, but it is advisable at the first opportune moment to tell someone. There are three degrees of emergency and, as pilot in command, you should preface your radio call with either:

• mayday (repeated three times) for a distress call;
• pan-pan (repeated three times) for an urgency call; and
• security (repeated three times) for a safety call.

Distress Message (or Mayday Call)
Distress is the absolute top priority call. It has priority over all others, and the word mayday should force everyone else into immediate radio silence. Mayday is the anglicized spelling of the French phrase m’aidez! which means help me! When you require immediate assistance and are being threatened by grave and immediate danger, the following applies:

• the mayday distress message should be transmitted over the air-ground frequency you are presently using;
• if you are currently using a UNICOM or tower frequency and receive no response to your distress call, and if you have time, repeat the call on the area frequency as shown on the sectional chart;
• if still no response, and if time permits, change frequency to 121.5 MHz (the international emergency frequency usually monitored by airliners and some ground stations) and repeat your distress call; and
• if your aircraft is transponder-equipped, squawk code 7700 (the emergency and urgency transponder code) which, if you are in a radar environment, causes a special symbol to appear around your aircraft on the ATC radar screen and rings an alarm bell immediately alerting the ATC radar controllers.

Urgency Message (or Pan-Pan Call)
The urgency or pan-pan message is made over the frequency in use when an emergency exists that does not require immediate assistance. Typical situations when a panpan message is appropriate include the following:

• experiencing navigational difficulties that require the assistance of ATC or flight service;
• carrying a passenger on board that has become seriously ill and requires urgent attention;
• seeing another airplane or a ship whose safety is threatened and urgent action is perhaps needed; and
• making an emergency change of level in controlled airspace that may conflict with traffic below.

Safety Message (or Security Call)
There are few occasions when it would be necessary to transmit a security call. It is nonetheless useful to know of the existence of this type of message in the event that it becomes necessary to transmit one.

Loss of Radio Contact
In the event of a total radio failure, there is a standard system of light signals used for communications to and from the control tower.

The post Communication Procedures: Emergency Radio Procedures first appeared on Learn To Fly.

Reference the figure below for all questions, however please note on the horizontal scale airspeed’s should be listed as knots, mph is a misprint.

1. A positive load factor of 4 at 140 knots would cause the airplane to
A—stall.
B—break apart.
C—be subjected to structural damage.

2. The airspeed indicated by point C is
A—maneuvering speed.
B—never-exceed speed.
C—maximum structural cruising speed.

3. The horizontal dashed line from point C to point E represents the
A—ultimate load factor.
B—positive limit load factor.
C—airspeed range for normal operations.

4. The vertical line from point E to point F is represented on the airspeed indicator by the
A—upper limit of the yellow arc.
B—upper limit of the green arc.
C—blue radial line.

5. The positive limit load factor is represented by the
A—vertical dashed line from E to F.
B—vertical solid line from D to G.
C—horizontal dashed line from C to point E.

BONUS!

What load factor would be created if positive 30 feet per second gusts were encountered at 130 knots?
A—3.8.
B—3.0.
C—2.0.

ANSWERS BELOW

⇓

⇓

⇓

⇓

⇓

⇓

⇓

⇓

1. A positive load factor of 4 at 140 knots would cause the airplane to
C—be subjected to structural damage.

The horizontal line for a load factor of 4 crosses the vertical line for 140 knots in the shaded area, indicating possible structural damage.

2. The airspeed indicated by point C is
A—maneuvering speed.

The airspeed indicated by point C is V(A), the design maneuvering airspeed. This is the maximum airspeed recommended for flight into turbulence.

Answer (B) is incorrect because V(NE) is indicated by point E. Answer (C) is incorrect because V(NO) is indicated by point D.

3. The horizontal dashed line from point C to point E represents the
B—positive limit load factor.

C to E is the maximum positive load limit. In this case it is 3.8 Gs, which is appropriate for normal category airplanes.

4. The vertical line from point E to point F is represented on the airspeed indicator by the
A—upper limit of the yellow arc.

V(NE) (never exceed airspeed), the vertical line from point E to F, is marked on airspeed indicators with a red radial line, the upper limit of the yellow arc.

5. The positive limit load factor is represented by the
C—horizontal dashed line from C to point E.

C to E is the maximum positive load limit. In this case it is 3.8 Gs, which is appropriate for normal category airplanes.
Answer (A) is incorrect because the vertical dashed line from E to F is the never-exceed airspeed (Vne). Answer (B) is incorrect because the vertical solid line from D to G is the high end for normal operations.

BONUS: What load factor would be created if positive 30 feet per second gusts were encountered at 130 knots?
B—3.0.

Follow the slanted line for +30 fps gusts until it crosses an imaginary vertical line for 130 knots (midway between 120 and 140 knots). This intersection falls on the horizontal line for a load factor of 3.0.

The post CFI Brief: Velocity vs. G-loads Diagram first appeared on Learn To Fly.

As an air mass moves across bodies of water and land, it eventually comes into contact with another air mass with different characteristics. The boundary layer between two types of air masses is known as a front. An approaching front of any type always means changes to the weather are imminent. There are four types of fronts, which are named according to the temperature of the advancing air relative temperature to the air mass it is replacing: warm, cold, stationary, and occluded.

Warm Fronts
A warm front occurs when a warm mass of air advances and replaces a body of colder air. Warm fronts move slowly, typically 10 to 25 miles per hour (mph). The slope of the advancing front slides over the top of the cooler air and gradually pushes it out of the area. Warm fronts contain warm air that often have very high humidity. As the warm air is lifted, the temperature drops and condensation occurs. Generally, prior to the passage of a warm front, cirriform or stratiform clouds, along with fog, can be expected to form along the frontal boundary. In the summer months, cumulonimbus clouds (thunderstorms) are likely to develop. Light to moderate precipitation is probable, usually in the form of rain, sleet, snow, or drizzle, accentuated by poor visibility.

Cold Front
Cold fronts move more rapidly than warm fronts, progressing at a rate of 25 to 30 mph. However, extreme cold fronts have been recorded moving at speeds of up to 60 mph. A typical cold front moves in a manner opposite that of a warm front. It is so dense, it stays close to the ground and acts like a snowplow, sliding under the warmer air and forcing the less dense air aloft. The rapidly ascending air
causes the temperature to decrease suddenly, forcing the creation of clouds. The type of clouds that form depends on the stability of the warmer air mass. A cold front in the Northern Hemisphere is normally oriented in a northeast to southwest manner and can be several hundred miles long, encompassing a large area of land. Rain showers and haze are possible due to the rapid development of clouds.

Depending on the intensity of the cold front, heavy rain showers form and might be accompanied by lightning, thunder, and/or hail. More severe cold fronts can also produce tornadoes. During cold front passage, the visibility is poor, with winds variable and gusty, and the temperature and dew point drop rapidly.

Stationary Front
When the forces of two air masses are relatively equal, the boundary or front that separates them remains stationary and influences the local weather for days. This front is called a stationary front. The weather associated with a stationary front is typically a mixture that can be found in both warm and cold fronts.

Occluded Front
An occluded front occurs when a fast-moving cold front catches up with a slow-moving warm front. As the occluded front approaches, warm front weather prevails, but is immediately followed by cold front weather. A cold front occlusion occurs when a fast moving cold front is colder than the air ahead of the slow moving warm front. When this occurs, the cold air replaces the cool air and forces the warm front aloft into the atmosphere. Typically, the cold front occlusion creates a mixture of weather found in both warm and cold fronts, providing the air is relatively stable.

A warm front occlusion occurs when the air ahead of the warm front is colder than the air of the cold front. When this is the case, the cold front rides up and over the warm front. If the air forced aloft by the warm front occlusion is unstable, the weather is more severe than the weather found in a cold front occlusion. Embedded thunderstorms, rain, and fog are likely to occur.

ASA’s offices will be closed December 31 and January 1. Happy New Year!

The post Weather: Fronts first appeared on Learn To Fly.

The engine oil system performs several important functions:

• Lubrication of the engine’s moving parts
• Cooling of the engine by reducing friction
• Removing heat from the cylinders
• Providing a seal between the cylinder walls and pistons
• Carrying away contaminants

Reciprocating engines use either a wet-sump or a dry-sump oil system. In a wet-sump system, the oil is located in a sump, which is an integral part of the engine. In a dry-sump system, the oil is contained in a separate tank, and circulated through the engine by pumps.

The main component of a wet-sump system is the oil pump, which draws oil from the sump and routes it to the engine. After the oil passes through the engine, it returns to the sump. In some engines, additional lubrication is supplied by the rotating crankshaft, which splashes oil onto portions of the engine.

An oil pump also supplies oil pressure in a dry-sump system, but the source of the oil is located external to the engine in a separate oil tank. After oil is routed through the engine, it is pumped from the various locations in the engine back to the oil tank by scavenge pumps. Dry-sump systems allow for a greater volume of oil to be supplied to the engine, which makes them more suitable for very large reciprocating engines.

The oil pressure gauge provides a direct indication of the oil system operation. It ensures the pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) of the oil supplied to the engine. Green indicates the normal operating range, while red indicates the minimum and maximum pressures. There should be an indication of oil pressure during engine start. Refer to the AFM/POH for manufacturer limitations.

The oil temperature gauge measures the temperature of oil. A green area shows the normal operating range and the red line indicates the maximum allowable temperature. Unlike oil pressure, changes in oil temperature occur more slowly. This is particularly noticeable after starting a cold engine, when it may take several minutes or longer for the gauge to show any increase in oil temperature.

Check oil temperature periodically during flight especially when operating in high or low ambient air temperature. High oil temperature indications may signal a plugged oil line, a low oil quantity, a blocked oil cooler, or a defective temperature gauge. Low oil temperature indications may signal improper oil viscosity during cold weather operations.

The oil filler cap and dipstick (for measuring the oil quantity) are usually accessible through a panel in the engine cowling. If the quantity does not meet the manufacturer’s recommended operating levels, oil should be added. The AFM/POH or placards near the access panel provide information about the correct oil type and weight, as well as the minimum and maximum oil quantity.

The post Aircraft Systems: Oil Systems first appeared on Learn To Fly.

Although the transponder has no microphone or speaker, it is a means of communication with ground radar facilities. Interrogation signals transmitted from the ground are received by your transponder, and it replies with a coded signal which the controller can read on the radar scope. Each time the transponder reply light flickers, it has responded to an interrogation. In congested areas the transponder will be replying to interrogation from several radars, while in remote areas it may receive only an occasional interrogation. Always set the four numbers on your transponder to 1200 when flying VFR. Otherwise, enter a specific code as directed by a radar controller while receiving radar services. The regulations require that all transponder-equipped airplanes must have them turned on while in flight. Be careful when setting your transponder—some codes have special meanings. Code 7700, for instance, is the emergency transponder code, used only to alert ground personnel that you are in distress. Code 7500 is the hijacking code, and code 7600 is used by instrument pilots in case of communications failure. Code 7777 belongs to the military. If a controller asks you to change codes, always acknowledge by reading the new code back to the controller.

Push your transponder’s IDENT button only when told to do so by the controller. This feature causes your radar return to intensify on the controller’s scope for exact identification, and when pushed it will stay activated for about 20 seconds. “Identing” when not directed to do so might result in a mis-identification by the controller. When the transponder function switch is ON, you are in Mode A (indicating your position) only, and with the function switch in the ALT (Mode C) position, the transponder will also transmit altitude information to the ground (if an encoding altimeter is installed in the airplane).

A transponder with Mode C capability is required for operation in Class B or C airspace or when flying in controlled airspace above 10,000 feet. You can request a waiver of these requirements if you give ATC one hour’s notice. Additionally, Mode C is required if you fly within 30 nautical miles of the Class B airspace’s primary airport and from the surface to 10,000 feet msl.

Almost all radar facilities require a transponder return for tracking. At those facilities with the most modern equipment, the controller does not see an actual target generated by your airplane but a computer-generated target based on your transponder.

That is why you will occasionally see airplanes visually that have not been called to your attention by the controller; if they don’t have a transponder (or if their transponder is off), they don’t show up on the radar.

A newer type of transponder, Mode S, transmits your airplane’s tail number in addition to position and altitude. These transponders make it possible for users to participate in the Traffic Identification System and Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS-B) programs. They are more expensive than Mode A/C transponders but enhance safety.

More on communication procedures from our CFI on Thursday. Thanks for following the Learn to Fly Blog!

The post Communication Procedures: the Transponder first appeared on Learn To Fly.

1. When executing an emergency approach to land in a single-engine airplane, it is important to maintain a constant glide speed because variations in glide speed
A—increase the chances of shock cooling the engine.
B—assure the proper descent angle is maintained until entering the flare.
C—nullify all attempts at accuracy in judgment of gliding distance and landing spot.

2. An airplane is flown in a glide at an airspeed where the L/D ratio is 8:1. How many feet air distance will this airplane glide for each 1,000 feet lost?

Answers below!

↓

↓

↓

1. Answer (C)
A constant gliding speed should be maintained because variations of gliding speed nullify all attempts at accuracy in judgment of gliding distance and the landing spot.

2. 8,000 feet. The aircraft will travel 8 times further than altitude lost at an 8:1 L/D ratio. For example, if the aircraft was 4,000 feet AGL and you lost an engine, the aircraft would travel 32,000 feet (8 x 4,000) or roughly just over 6 miles (5,280 feet in a mile) in a no-wind condition before coming in contact with the ground.

(8 x 4,000) = 32,000 / 5,280 = 6.06 miles

The post CFI Brief: Engine Failure, Video Clip first appeared on Learn To Fly.

Information contained within the AFM is presented in a standardized format as seen in the table below:

1. General—you’ll find basic descriptive information on the airframe and powerplant. Serves as a quick reference to become familiar with the aircraft.
2. Limitations—contains regulatory limitations or those necessary for the safe operation of the aircraft and all of its components.
3. Emergency Procedures—here you’ll find checklists with recommended procedures for dealing with an emergency. You may also see an additional section of checklists dealing with abnormal procedures.
4. Normal Procedures—a complete listing of airspeeds for normal operations will be listed at the beginning of this section. Following airspeeds will be a series of checklists also for normal operations like preflight inspection, before-takeoff check, climb, cruise, descent, etc.
5. Performance—contains all regulatory and compliance information in relation to aircraft performance as required by the aircraft’s certification. You’ll find performance charts and tables depicting things like takeoff distance, landing distance, cruise performance, and stall speeds in various configurations to name just a few.
6. W&B and Equipment List—contains all information deemed necessary to calculate aircraft weight and balance. Also in this section you’ll find a complete list of the equipment installed in the aircraft.
7. System Description—an outline and description of each system on the aircraft.
8. Handling, Service, and Maintenance—a description of maintenance and inspections as recommended by the manufacturer. You will also find information on preventative maintenance that may be accomplished by certificated pilots.
9. Supplements—within this section you’ll find a listing of optional equipment installed that was not provided with the standard aircraft. You will also find information necessary to safely operate the aircraft with any optional equipment or systems installed.

It’s important to not get the AFM confused with an aircraft owner manual or information manual which may look  very similar in appearance to the AFM. Those documents, however, contains general information about the make and model of the aircraft and are not specific to the aircraft’s serial number and, furthermore, not approved by the FAA. You can best use these manuals to glean overall information about the make and model of aircraft you will be flying.

Next time you’re in the aircraft, pull out the AFM and take a look through. See if any additional equipment has been installed, or try to find information that’s unique to your specific aircraft.

The post CFI Brief: Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) first appeared on Learn To Fly.