The Pilot-Controller Partnership for Safety

Aviation communication is a team effort, not a competition between pilots and controllers. Air traffic controllers are just as anxious as you are for your flight to be completed safely. They will cooperate with you whenever they can do so while still remaining consistent with safety. They are not the equivalent of the stereotypical law enforcement officer just waiting for you to do something wrong. They hate paperwork as much as anyone, and filing a violation against a pilot starts an avalanche of forms and reports. On the other hand, they have a tremendous amount of responsibility and can be severely overloaded with traffic, which means you can’t expect a controller to ignore everyone else to give you special treatment.

Inherent in the teamwork concept is equality. Yes—controllers can and will give you instructions that you must follow (unless it is unsafe to do so), but they are not aviation police with books of tickets just waiting for you to make a mistake. They are on your side. Like all of us, they have bad days, so don’t read too much into a controller’s tone of voice. And don’t ask for permission (i.e., do not use the word “permission”). That sets my teeth on edge. Instead just say, for example, “Request taxi instructions,” “Request 10 degrees left for weather,” “Request direct Bigtown Municipal,” and the like.

Many pilots are reluctant to use the radio because they feel they are imposing on the controller. They should put themselves in the controller’s seat: There are 20 targets on the scope and the controller knows the altitude, course, and intentions of 19 of them because they are on instrument flight plans or are receiving radar flight following services. For the 20th target, the controller knows only its altitude and present direction of flight (VFR flight plans are not seen by the air traffic control system). Will that target change altitude and/or course and create a conflict? There is no way for the controller to know, and thus the unknown target imposes a greater workload on the controller. Don’t be that target.

Some pilots worry about talking to air traffic control (ATC) because they “don’t want to bother the controller.” Controller’s pay levels are based in part on traffic count, so by failing to communicate you hit the controller in the pocketbook. They welcome your call.

. . .

Technobabble Not Spoken Here

Use plain English. “Tell me what you want me to do,” might not appear in [The Aeronautical Information Manual] AIM, but if it is necessary to use that phrase, it gets the job done. The following suggestion will be repeated later more than once, because it is important: Listen to your radio. Other airplanes will be talking to air traffic control (ATC), getting weather reports, or communicating with advisory services. The information they are receiving might be useful to you and make it unnecessary for you to make a transmission (or allow you to drastically shorten your transmission). Go to any small airport (one without a control tower) with a VHF receiver that covers the aviation frequencies and just monitor the airport’s Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF)— ask one of the local pilots if you aren’t sure what the CTAF for that airport is. You will hear a dozen airplanes reporting that they are landing or taking off on runway 14 (for example), and then a strange voice will come on the frequency and ask, “What runway is in use?” That pilot hasn’t learned to listen.

Note: Advisory Circular 90-66 contains instructions for communication at airports without control towers.

That VHF receiver is your best source of information on how to communicate as a pilot. Get a copy of the Chart Supplement U.S., which contains the Airport/Facility Directory (A/ FD) for your area, and look up the frequencies that are used by the local airports and air traffic control facilities. Look in the Chart Supplement Section 4 for Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) frequencies, then tune in and listen to how the airliners communicate when en route. You will hear lots of good examples and a few alarmingly bad examples. You may not be able to hear both ends of the communication unless you live within line-of-sight distance of the ground station’s antenna, but a visit to a local tower-controlled airport will eliminate that problem.

When you are surfing the web, spend some time at liveatc.net. You will be able to listen to controller–aircraft traffic at a number of facilities nationwide and internationally.

While you are at your computer, go to faa.gov/ and locate FAA Order 7110.65. (This can be done through the search feature or by selecting “Regulations” from the menu and then “Orders and Notices.”) This directive tells controllers what to say and how to say it, and they are required to follow its dictates. This is important to you because you will see that controller transmissions follow a fixed format for each situation; only things like headings, altitudes, and facility names change. With this in mind, you will know what to expect in each situation. However, if it becomes apparent to the controller that the approved phraseology is not getting through to you, the controller is free to use plain language. By the same token, you are free to say, “I don’t understand what you want me to do,” if that is the case. Most of this ATC order will not apply to you, but review it anyway, it is a treasure trove of information and an excellent reference.

No matter what your instructor says, you can’t say something “wrong” on the radio. Read AIM 4-2-1; in it, you will find this gem: “Since concise phraseology may not always be adequate, use whatever words are necessary to get your message across.” With experience, we all catch on to the lingo, but failure to use specific phraseology is not a big deal. The Airman Certification Standard for Private Pilot does require the applicant to use standard phraseology but a quick look at the AIM reveals that, while it tells you how to report headings, altitudes, and speeds and provides the phonetic alphabet for pronunciation of letters and numbers, there is not much required phraseology. Read Advisory Circular 90-66 as a better source of information for this.

Blown away by the whole idea of talking to controllers? Go to youtube.com/user/AirSafetyInstitute to get a controller’s take on it. There are several videos, and you should watch them all. Search “Ask ATC” and watch a playlist of pilots’ questions for controllers about communications.

Find the seventh edition of Say Again, Please at your favorite aviation supplier, or on ASA’s website here.

The post Remember Air Traffic Control Is on Your Team first appeared on Learn To Fly.

My home airport was about a 25 minute flight away and located in Class D airspace, meaning in a normal situation I would need to establish two-way radio communication prior to entering into the airspace and further clearance to land from the control tower. However, I knew with every click of the radio I would be draining the battery of precious power and more than likely have no battery left by the time I got near the airport. After running through the checklists and reducing the electrical load by switching off all non-essential equipment, I tuned in the control tower frequency for the class D airport. My goal at this point was to make a quick radio call to the tower advising them of my impending communications failure, intentions, and current position. Unfortunately for me I was in a bit of a mountainous area and still a little too far out that I was not able to hear any response back from the tower, so I was unsure if they had received my transmission or not. This still was not that big of a concern for me since I knew there were communication procedures in place for situations just like this one.

In the event of a radio communications failure, ATC towers have set procedures to communicate with aircraft via light gun signals. Every operating control tower is outfitted with hand held light guns like the one pictured that emit, Red, Green, and White Light.

After my failure to establish radio communication with the tower, I dialed 7600 into the transponder, which is the squawk code for communications failure. Keeping in mind that when my battery finally did die, my transponder would as well, the squawk code would disappear from ATC radar, and I would just appear as a blip on the screen. About 10 miles out from the airport I went to call tower again and sure enough lost battery power mid transmission. I was close enough to the airport now that I figured someone in the tower probably saw my 7600 squawk and knew I had a communications failure, but I still needed to be extremely cautious and aware of other traffic in the airspace and traffic pattern. I bee-lined it directly for the airport at an altitude of 2,500 ft MSL which was about 1,000 ft above traffic pattern altitude (TPA). My goal here was to overfly the airport looking for other aircraft in the traffic pattern so I could safely descend to TPA and enter into the pattern. Upon overflying the airport I noticed a bright green light emitting from the control tower window. Now remember those aforementioned light gun signals a paragraph earlier? The steady green light is visual communication for cleared to land. Tower must have either noticed my squawk code or put two and two together that some random aircraft was in their airspace without prior clearance and is one, either an idiot or two, more than likely has a communication failure. Without further incident I was able to safely land, receiving another steady green light while on final approach. Once taxing clear of the runway I looked back behind me at the tower and received a flashing green light which is the visual light cue for cleared to taxi.

There is a whole set of Airport Traffic Control Tower Light Gun Signals that you should become familiar with and know by memory. You can find all of these signals and procedures outlined in the AIM Section 4-3-13. I have also included a visual image for each of the light gun signals below.

After parking and securing the aircraft I gave tower a quick phone call to make sure everything was good. They gave me the A-OK and said they had received the first transmission I made when still 30 miles out, so they had been expecting my arrival and tracked my 7600 squawk code up until I lost power. All in all everything worked out fine that day, other than our scenic flight being cut a bit short—but oh well, saved me a few bucks on the rental fee.

Light gun signals are something that you should know by memory; radio communication failures are not as rare as you might think they are. I have had two in my 15 years of flying. The second of which was a similar circumstance to the first, however that time ATC tower was not exactly on their A-game. After overflying the airport for about 5 minutes and entering the traffic pattern I never received any sort of visual light signal from the tower. I ended up landing, taxing, and parking without ever getting any clearance. I was starting to think their light gun was broken. After I parked and secured the aircraft, I called tower to see what was up. Turns out it was a slow day at the airport and no one in the tower ever even noticed me in the pattern or landing for that matter! I taxied to parking none-the-wiser to the controller’s. It’s not really advisable to land without clearance but sometimes everything doesn’t work out the way it should and you must adapt to the circumstances you are dealt with.

You have the light gun signals memorized yet? Time to find out!

1. A steady red light from the tower, for an aircraft on the ground indicates
A—Give way to other aircraft and continue circling.
B—Stop.
C—Taxi clear of the runway in use.

2. A flashing white light signal from the control tower to a taxiing aircraft is an indication to
A—taxi at a faster speed.
B—taxi only on taxiways and not cross runways.
C—return to the starting point on the airport

3. An alternating red and green light signal directed from the control tower to an aircraft in flight is a signal to
A—hold position.
B—exercise extreme caution.
C—not land; the airport is unsafe.

Answers posted in the comments section.

The post CFI Brief: ATC Tower Light Gun Signals first appeared on Learn To Fly.

Let’s take a look at 14 CFR §91.207 which outlines the regulations surrounding the Emergency Locator Transmitter.

§91.207 Emergency locator transmitters.

(a) Except as provided in paragraphs (e) and (f) of this section, no person may operate a U.S.-registered civil airplane unless—

(1) There is attached to the airplane an approved automatic type emergency locator transmitter that is in operable condition for the following operations, except that after June 21, 1995, an emergency locator transmitter that meets the requirements of TSO-C91 may not be used for new installations:

(i) Those operations governed by the supplemental air carrier and commercial operator rules of parts 121 and 125;

(ii) Charter flights governed by the domestic and flag air carrier rules of part 121 of this chapter; and

(iii) Operations governed by part 135 of this chapter; or

(2) For operations other than those specified in paragraph (a)(1) of this section, there must be attached to the airplane an approved personal type or an approved automatic type emergency locator transmitter that is in operable condition, except that after June 21, 1995, an emergency locator transmitter that meets the requirements of TSO-C91 may not be used for new installations.

(b) Each emergency locator transmitter required by paragraph (a) of this section must be attached to the airplane in such a manner that the probability of damage to the transmitter in the event of crash impact is minimized. Fixed and deployable automatic type transmitters must be attached to the airplane as far aft as practicable.

(c) Batteries used in the emergency locator transmitters required by paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section must be replaced (or recharged, if the batteries are rechargeable)—

(1) When the transmitter has been in use for more than 1 cumulative hour; or

(2) When 50 percent of their useful life (or, for rechargeable batteries, 50 percent of their useful life of charge) has expired, as established by the transmitter manufacturer under its approval.

The new expiration date for replacing (or recharging) the battery must be legibly marked on the outside of the transmitter and entered in the aircraft maintenance record. Paragraph (c)(2) of this section does not apply to batteries (such as water-activated batteries) that are essentially unaffected during probable storage intervals.

(d) Each emergency locator transmitter required by paragraph (a) of this section must be inspected within 12 calendar months after the last inspection for—

(1) Proper installation;

(2) Battery corrosion;

(3) Operation of the controls and crash sensor; and

(4) The presence of a sufficient signal radiated from its antenna.

(e) Notwithstanding paragraph (a) of this section, a person may—

(1) Ferry a newly acquired airplane from the place where possession of it was taken to a place where the emergency locator transmitter is to be installed; and

(2) Ferry an airplane with an inoperative emergency locator transmitter from a place where repairs or replacements cannot be made to a place where they can be made.

No person other than required crewmembers may be carried aboard an airplane being ferried under paragraph (e) of this section.

(f) Paragraph (a) of this section does not apply to—

(1) Before January 1, 2004, turbojet-powered aircraft;

(2) Aircraft while engaged in scheduled flights by scheduled air carriers;

(3) Aircraft while engaged in training operations conducted entirely within a 50-nautical mile radius of the airport from which such local flight operations began;

(4) Aircraft while engaged in flight operations incident to design and testing;

(5) New aircraft while engaged in flight operations incident to their manufacture, preparation, and delivery;

(6) Aircraft while engaged in flight operations incident to the aerial application of chemicals and other substances for agricultural purposes;

(7) Aircraft certificated by the Administrator for research and development purposes;

(8) Aircraft while used for showing compliance with regulations, crew training, exhibition, air racing, or market surveys;

(9) Aircraft equipped to carry not more than one person.

(10) An aircraft during any period for which the transmitter has been temporarily removed for inspection, repair, modification, or replacement, subject to the following:

(i) No person may operate the aircraft unless the aircraft records contain an entry which includes the date of initial removal, the make, model, serial number, and reason for removing the transmitter, and a placard located in view of the pilot to show “ELT not installed.”

(ii) No person may operate the aircraft more than 90 days after the ELT is initially removed from the aircraft; and

(11) On and after January 1, 2004, aircraft with a maximum payload capacity of more than 18,000 pounds when used in air transportation.

You can be certain that you will be tested on this regulation, not only on your knowledge exam but on the oral portion of the checkride as well. To highlight a few of the more important elements in which you will likely see on your knowledge test.

• Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT) have been developed as a means of locating downed aircraft. Transmitting on 121.5 and 406 MHz, the ELT will operate continuously for at least 48 hours after impact.
• To prevent false alarms, the ELT should be tested only during the first 5 minutes after any hour and only for one to three sweeps. False alarms can also be minimized by monitoring 121.5 or 406 MHz prior to engine shutdown at the end of each flight.
• Non-rechargeable batteries used in ELTs must be replaced when 50% of their useful life has expired, or when the transmitter has been in use for more than 1 cumulative hour.

Between Monday’s and today’s post let’s see if you can correctly answer the group of sample knowledge test questions below.

1. When are non-rechargeable batteries of an emergency locator transmitter (ELT) required to be replaced?
A-Every 24 months.
B-When 50 percent of their useful life expires.
C-At the time of each 100-hour or annual inspection.

2. When may an emergency locator transmitter (ELT) be tested?
A-Anytime.
B-At 15 and 45 minutes past the hour.
C-During the first 5 minutes after the hour.

3. Which procedure is recommended to ensure that the emergency locator transmitter (ELT) has not been activated?
A-Turn off the aircraft ELT after landing.
B-Ask the airport tower if they are receiving an ELT signal.
C-Monitor 121.5 before engine shutdown.

4. When activated, an emergency locator transmitter (ELT) transmits on
A-118.0 and 118.8 MHz.
B-121.5 and 243.0 MHz.
C-123.0 and 119.0 MHz.

Answers and Explanations to above questions.

And be sure to check out the newly released Finding Carla which in part led to the above regulation.

The post CFI Brief: Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) first appeared on Learn To Fly.

This tragedy spurred political action towards the mandatory Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELTs) that are carried aboard all U.S. civil aircraft. ELT radios have saved thousands of lives since they were mandated and their technology continues to improve and find more lost people.

Today, an ELT is required by 14 CFR §91.207, and must be inspected within 12 calendar months after the last inspection for the following:

• Proper installation.
• Battery corrosion.
• Operation of the controls and crash sensor.
• The presence of a sufficient signal radiated from its antenna.

The ELT must be attached to the airplane in such a manner that the probability of damage to the transmitter in the event of crash impact is minimized. Fixed and deployable automatic type transmitters must be attached to the airplane as far aft as practicable. Batteries used in the ELTs must be replaced (or recharged, if the batteries are rechargeable):

• When the transmitter has been in use for more than 1 cumulative hour.
• When 50 percent of the battery useful life or, for rechargeable batteries, 50 percent of useful life of the charge has expired.

An expiration date for replacing (or recharging) the battery must be legibly marked on the outside of the transmitter and entered in the aircraft maintenance record. This does not apply to batteries that are essentially unaffected during storage intervals, such as water-activated batteries.

Ross Nixon’s compelling story uncovers the “Carla Corbus Diary”—along with the family letters that accompanied it—never before published in full.

The post Communication Procedures: Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) first appeared on Learn To Fly.

The post CFI Brief: NextGEN Modernization first appeared on Learn To Fly.

Airspace around an airport with an operating control tower is Class D airspace (unless it is within Class B airspace); it will usually extend vertically to 2,500 feet above airport elevation and horizontally a nominal 4.4 nautical miles (the boundaries may vary, but will be charted). If you need to enter Class D airspace, you must first communicate with the tower. If you are departing, you must first receive taxi instructions (not a “taxi clearance”) from the ground controller, who directs all activity on the ramps and taxiways. With few exceptions, ground control operates on 121.6, 121.7, 121.8, or 121.9 MHz. Controllers will frequently shorten this by eliminating the 121: “Contact ground point seven leaving the runway.”

The ground controller will authorize you to taxi to the runway in use, but you must stop before crossing any taxiways or runways (active or not) and receive permission to cross. Think of it as a stoplight at every intersection that glows red until the controller turns it to green. The figure below illustrates a situation where a pilot taxiing from the ramp to the runup area for runway 9 would receive authorization for the whole route, but would be told to hold short of runway 27. With permission to cross, he or she would proceed to the unmarked intersection with the closed runway, stop, call for permission, and the procedure would be repeated at the hold lines for runways 36R and 36L. It is the controller’s responsibility to issue precise instructions, but if you are getting close to any kind of intersection without having heard from the tower, stop and ask.

Note: Ground controllers do not use the word “cleared,” because it might be misconstrued as a takeoff clearance…they say “taxi to” or “taxi across.” If you are directed to “hold short” of a runway you must read that instruction back to the controller verbatim…nothing else will suffice. To avoid a runway incursion, always stop and ask for clarification of any instruction you do not understand. “What do you want me to do?” works just fine.

If you are at an unfamiliar airport, do not hesitate to ask for “progressive taxi instructions” and the controller will guide you to your destination on the field. “Student pilot” is a useful phrase to include in your transmissions.

When you are ready for takeoff, contact the tower controller for takeoff clearance. The tower (or “local”) controller is responsible for all aircraft in Class D airspace and on the active runway—don’t taxi onto the runway without a clearance. You must maintain communication with the tower controllers while you are in their airspace (Class D), but remember that separation from other airplanes is your responsibility; don’t expect the controller to keep you from swapping paint. When you have departed Class D airspace you are on your own (or you may request radar services). You do not have to ask the tower for permission to change frequencies after you have crossed the Class D airspace boundary.

On arrival, before you enter Class D airspace you should listen to the ATIS (if there is one) and advise the tower controller on initial contact that you have the ATIS information. Where there is no ATIS, listen on the tower frequency and note the instructions given to other pilots. Once you are sure of the runway in use, wind, and altimeter setting, you can say: “Miami Tower, Baron 2345X ten miles west with the numbers.” After landing, do not change to ground control until advised to do so by the tower. Some tower-controlled airports have UNICOM, but because you will get all of your weather information and clearances from the tower, your use of UNICOM at that tower-controlled airport will be limited to such things as calling for fuel, ordering rental cars, etc. Note: Towers report wind direction relative to magnetic north. In fact, any wind direction you receive by radio is referenced to magnetic north; winds in written form, such as forecasts, are referenced to true north.

If you have any questions about how your flight was handled by the tower, call as soon as practicable and talk to a quality assurance person before the tapes are erased—don’t expect an answer if you wait more than 15 days.

If an airport does not have an ATIS and does not use the primary control tower frequency as the CTAF, its data block will include “VFR Advisory—125.0”; if, of course, 125.0 is the frequency to use.

We’ll be back on Thursday with more from our CFI. If you’d like to receive new posts by email, subscribe using the form at the top of the sidebar to the right!

The post Communication Procedures: Communication at Airports with Operating Towers first appeared on Learn To Fly.

The process of obtaining a clearance starts first with the pilot filling out an IFR flight plan. An IFR flight plan is identical to that of a VFR in that it will contain aircraft and route information. ATC will issue a clearance based off the information from the IFR flight plan. It’s important to understand though that the clearance may not be the exact route or altitude that you selected when filling out your IFR flight plan. ATC priority is traffic flow and aircraft separation so you may note changes in your clearance from what you originally filled.

Your clearance will typically be issued by ground control or clearance delivery for airports that have that frequency available. Clearance delivery is simply a control tower position responsible for transmitting departure clearances to IFR flights. Clearances can often be drawn out and long so having a CD frequency prevents an abundance of traffic on ground frequency.

An IFR clearance will contain in this order: your identification, the clearance limit (usually your destination airport), the departure procedure, altitudes, any holding instructions, any other special information, radio frequency and transponder code information. Because clearances are always issued in the same format a good memory aid to help you remember is CRAFT:

• Clearance limit
• Route (including DP, if any)
• Altitude
• Frequency
• Transponder code

For example. ATC:
Mooney 3-7-3-Foxtrot cleared to the John Wayne airport;
After departure turn left heading 270, radar vectors mission bay VOR, as filled;
Climb and maintain 2,000 expect 4,000 one zero minutes after departure;
Departure frequency 119.2;
Squawk 4528

The above issued clearance from ATC follows the memory aid CRAFT. Now obviously that’s a lot of text to write down so it’s important to develop your own short hand that makes sense to you. You already know the order that the information is going to be coming at you so from there you can kind of fill in the blanks. This is how I would personally write down the above clearance.

SNA
TL 270, RV MZB, AF
2,000 / 4,000-10
119.2
4528

As you can see, I put each CRAFT item on a new line. Some of my shorthand includes TL for “turn left” or TR for “turn right”, other people may just use an arrow. You also see RV for “radar vectors” and AF for “as filled”. My initial altitude was 2,000, eventually climbing to 4,000 in ten minutes, so I noted that with a 10 after the second altitude. Everybody has their own style, find one that works for you and stick with it, there’s no right or wrong way.

Now once your clearance is read to you by ATC you must read it back and do so in the identical order as it was given. This is done to make sure both parties are on the same page and the clearance was properly read and read back from both ATC and PIC.

Following the read back from the pilot-in-command that clearance has been accepted and ATC expects you to follow it. You may not deviate from that issued clearance unless an amended clearance is obtained, an emergency situation arises, or in response to a traffic and collision avoidance system resolution advisory.

For me this is fun stuff, I enjoy reading back clearances and interacting with ATC but it takes some getting used to at first. There are several live ATC feeds out there that you can listen in on. Check out www.liveatc.net, find a clearance deliver frequency and listen to the clearances. Practice your short hand and read back skills, you might even pick up a few tips from listening to other pilots, overall it’s a great way to gain some experience without paying for AVGAS.

Here are some additional examples of clearances and short hand from the Pilot’s Manual Volume 3: Instrument Flying (PM-3).

The post CFI Brief: IFR ATC Clearances first appeared on Learn To Fly.

Request assistance whenever you have any serious doubt regarding the safety of a flight. Transmission should be slow and distinct, with each word pronounced clearly so that there is no need for repetition. This of course should apply to all radio transmissions, but it is more important in emergency situations. If you do find yourself in real difficulty, waste no time in requesting assistance from ATC or on the appropriate CTAF or UNICOM frequency. Timely action may avoid an even more serious emergency.

What is Considered to be an Emergency?
It is impossible to cover all the possibilities here. The declaration of an emergency by the pilot in command is an area for your operational judgment. Emergencies can be classified according to the urgency and to the degree of seriousness of the consequences.

As the pilot, you decide, but always err on the safe side. Some categories might be:

• no urgency of time but need assistance, such as being uncertain of position and unable to confirm direction to proceed but with plenty of fuel and remaining daylight;
• some urgency of time, such as uncertain of position with fuel reserves or remaining daylight less than an hour or so;
• some urgency and potential for serious consequences, such as loss of oil pressure, rough-running engine or fuel depletion that may leave insufficient fuel to reach an airfield;
• potential seriousness but not yet developed, such as some doubt about the serviceability of the aircraft or systems, or the medical condition of the pilot;
• potential seriousness but no urgency, such as loss of primary attitude indicator with eight oktas of cloud but plenty of fuel and daylight; and
• potential catastrophe and urgency, such as risk of loss of control due to reduced visibility or daylight or risk of controlled flight into terrain due to rising ground and lowering cloud base.

It is impossible to set hard-and-fast rules. If in doubt, tell someone what the potential problem is and do it earlier rather than later, when there is still plenty of time, fuel and daylight. If there is any urgency, formally declare an emergency, at least a pan-pan. If there is any risk of loss of control or injury, declare a mayday.

Declaring an Emergency
If an emergency arises, it is your responsibility as pilot in command to assess just how serious the emergency is (or could be) and to take appropriate safety action. Many emergencies require your immediate attention and occupy you fully for some moments, but it is advisable at the first opportune moment to tell someone. There are three degrees of emergency and, as pilot in command, you should preface your radio call with either:

• mayday (repeated three times) for a distress call;
• pan-pan (repeated three times) for an urgency call; and
• security (repeated three times) for a safety call.

Distress Message (or Mayday Call)
Distress is the absolute top priority call. It has priority over all others, and the word mayday should force everyone else into immediate radio silence. Mayday is the anglicized spelling of the French phrase m’aidez! which means help me! When you require immediate assistance and are being threatened by grave and immediate danger, the following applies:

• the mayday distress message should be transmitted over the air-ground frequency you are presently using;
• if you are currently using a UNICOM or tower frequency and receive no response to your distress call, and if you have time, repeat the call on the area frequency as shown on the sectional chart;
• if still no response, and if time permits, change frequency to 121.5 MHz (the international emergency frequency usually monitored by airliners and some ground stations) and repeat your distress call; and
• if your aircraft is transponder-equipped, squawk code 7700 (the emergency and urgency transponder code) which, if you are in a radar environment, causes a special symbol to appear around your aircraft on the ATC radar screen and rings an alarm bell immediately alerting the ATC radar controllers.

Urgency Message (or Pan-Pan Call)
The urgency or pan-pan message is made over the frequency in use when an emergency exists that does not require immediate assistance. Typical situations when a panpan message is appropriate include the following:

• experiencing navigational difficulties that require the assistance of ATC or flight service;
• carrying a passenger on board that has become seriously ill and requires urgent attention;
• seeing another airplane or a ship whose safety is threatened and urgent action is perhaps needed; and
• making an emergency change of level in controlled airspace that may conflict with traffic below.

Safety Message (or Security Call)
There are few occasions when it would be necessary to transmit a security call. It is nonetheless useful to know of the existence of this type of message in the event that it becomes necessary to transmit one.

Loss of Radio Contact
In the event of a total radio failure, there is a standard system of light signals used for communications to and from the control tower.

The post Communication Procedures: Emergency Radio Procedures first appeared on Learn To Fly.

Often times when operating under flight following and when in controlled airspace ATC will provide you with traffic advisories. These advisories are given for the obvious reasons: to prevent a midair collision and maintain separation. When a controller refers to a direction in relation to a time (12 o’clock, 6 o’clock) they are basing that direction off a standard 12-hour clock. With 12 o’clock being directly in front of you and 6 o’clock being directly behind you.

It’s important to remember though on a radar screen a controller can only see your ground track or true course. The controller has no idea in which direction the nose of your aircraft is actually pointing. A controller might report an aircraft at your 12 o’clock but it might actually be more towards your 1 o’clock if you had a 20 degree left wind correction angle. If a traffic advisory is given it is the pilots responsibility to acknowledge receipt of advisory and inform the controller if traffic in sight. An example of acknowledgement could be, “…traffic in sight will maintain visual separation, Cessna Alpha-Sierra-Alpha.”

Part of maintaining visual separation from other aircraft is a full and complete understanding of right-of-way rules. Much like in a car where the right-of-way is given to the vehicle to the right the same theory of rules exists for aircraft and is outlined in 14 CFR §91.113.

§91.113 Right-of-way rules: Except water operations.

(a) Inapplicability. This section does not apply to the operation of an aircraft on water.

(b) General. When weather conditions permit, regardless of whether an operation is conducted under instrument flight rules or visual flight rules, vigilance shall be maintained by each person operating an aircraft so as to see and avoid other aircraft. When a rule of this section gives another aircraft the right-of-way, the pilot shall give way to that aircraft and may not pass over, under, or ahead of it unless well clear.

(c) In distress. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other air traffic.

(d) Converging. When aircraft of the same category are converging at approximately the same altitude (except head-on, or nearly so), the aircraft to the other’s right has the right-of-way. If the aircraft are of different categories—

(1) A balloon has the right-of-way over any other category of aircraft;

(2) A glider has the right-of-way over an airship, powered parachute, weight-shift-control aircraft, airplane, or rotorcraft.

(3) An airship has the right-of-way over a powered parachute, weight-shift-control aircraft, airplane, or rotorcraft.

However, an aircraft towing or refueling other aircraft has the right-of-way over all other engine-driven aircraft.

(e) Approaching head-on. When aircraft are approaching each other head-on, or nearly so, each pilot of each aircraft shall alter course to the right.

(f) Overtaking. Each aircraft that is being overtaken has the right-of-way and each pilot of an overtaking aircraft shall alter course to the right to pass well clear.

(g) Landing. Aircraft, while on final approach to land or while landing, have the right-of-way over other aircraft in flight or operating on the surface, except that they shall not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway surface which has already landed and is attempting to make way for an aircraft on final approach. When two or more aircraft are approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way, but it shall not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another which is on final approach to land or to overtake that aircraft.

Let’s look at a few example of right-of-way rules.

An airplane and an airship are converging. If the airship is left of the airplane’s position, which aircraft has the right-of-way?

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An airship has the right-of-way over an airplane or rotorcraft. 91.113(d)(3).

Which aircraft has the right-of-way over all other air traffic, an airship, an aircraft in distress, or an aircraft on final approach to land?

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An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other air traffic. 91.113(c).

So getting back to the first sentence, at this point you should be able to interpret from ATC’s traffic advisory that an aircraft is heading in our general direction. It is in our best interest to identify that traffic and take any necessary action to avoid and maintain separation. Remember flying in visual meteorological conditions (VMC) it is always the pilots responsibility to see and avoid, this holds true even if operating under instrument flight rules (IFR).

The post CFI Brief: Traffic Alerts first appeared on Learn To Fly.

Although the transponder has no microphone or speaker, it is a means of communication with ground radar facilities. Interrogation signals transmitted from the ground are received by your transponder, and it replies with a coded signal which the controller can read on the radar scope. Each time the transponder reply light flickers, it has responded to an interrogation. In congested areas the transponder will be replying to interrogation from several radars, while in remote areas it may receive only an occasional interrogation. Always set the four numbers on your transponder to 1200 when flying VFR. Otherwise, enter a specific code as directed by a radar controller while receiving radar services. The regulations require that all transponder-equipped airplanes must have them turned on while in flight. Be careful when setting your transponder—some codes have special meanings. Code 7700, for instance, is the emergency transponder code, used only to alert ground personnel that you are in distress. Code 7500 is the hijacking code, and code 7600 is used by instrument pilots in case of communications failure. Code 7777 belongs to the military. If a controller asks you to change codes, always acknowledge by reading the new code back to the controller.

Push your transponder’s IDENT button only when told to do so by the controller. This feature causes your radar return to intensify on the controller’s scope for exact identification, and when pushed it will stay activated for about 20 seconds. “Identing” when not directed to do so might result in a mis-identification by the controller. When the transponder function switch is ON, you are in Mode A (indicating your position) only, and with the function switch in the ALT (Mode C) position, the transponder will also transmit altitude information to the ground (if an encoding altimeter is installed in the airplane).

A transponder with Mode C capability is required for operation in Class B or C airspace or when flying in controlled airspace above 10,000 feet. You can request a waiver of these requirements if you give ATC one hour’s notice. Additionally, Mode C is required if you fly within 30 nautical miles of the Class B airspace’s primary airport and from the surface to 10,000 feet msl.

Almost all radar facilities require a transponder return for tracking. At those facilities with the most modern equipment, the controller does not see an actual target generated by your airplane but a computer-generated target based on your transponder.

That is why you will occasionally see airplanes visually that have not been called to your attention by the controller; if they don’t have a transponder (or if their transponder is off), they don’t show up on the radar.

A newer type of transponder, Mode S, transmits your airplane’s tail number in addition to position and altitude. These transponders make it possible for users to participate in the Traffic Identification System and Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS-B) programs. They are more expensive than Mode A/C transponders but enhance safety.

More on communication procedures from our CFI on Thursday. Thanks for following the Learn to Fly Blog!

The post Communication Procedures: the Transponder first appeared on Learn To Fly.